Nonverbal Communication

Ruesch, Jurgen & Kees, Weldon 1956. Nonverbal Communication: Notes on the visual perception of human relations. University of California Press : Berkley and Los Angeles

Üsna vana (momendil 55a) ja kummalise väljanägemisega raamat. Raamatu mõõtude tõttu oli teda mõneti ebamugav lugeda kuniks harjumus end sisse seadis. Augustikuine kehakeele-maraton on selle teosega avatud. Mineval augustikuul õnnestus mul läbi lugeda 15 selleteemalist raamatut, tänavu püüdlen rohkema poole. Olukord on pinev, sest möödunud aastal tegin alustust populaarsete kehakeeleõpikutega, mis nüüdseks on mulle kasutud, sest kirjeldavad intuitiivset kehakeelt. Tänavu on valik parem, olgugi, et sisse lipsavad kindlasti ka mõned aimeteaduslikud raamatud. Olukorda ei kergenda ka see, et head-keerulised raamatud pidevalt juhivad lugemisisu mujale. Näiteks käesoleva teose biobliograafiast leidsin, et Norber Wiener, küberneetika isa, on kirjutanud teose mille pealkiri isegi eesti keeles (tõlge 1961) kõlab kutsuvalt: "Küberneetika ehk Juhtimine ja side loomas ning masinas". Nii palju siis lugemistaustast.
Raamatu autorite kohta tean nii palju, et Ruesch oli psühhiaater kes võttis väga semiootilise suuna (bibliograafias oli kohustusliku elemendina ka Morrise "Sign, Language, and Behavior" mille ainus TÜRi koopia on endiselt välja laenutatud) ja kelle 1972. aasta tööd "Semiotic Approaches to Human Relations" kasutas Randviir oma doktoritöös. Tema esimene raamat, avaldatud mõned aastad enne käesolevat, on kirjutatud kahasse Gregory Batesoniga. Keesi kohta saab öelda vähem. Ta oli luuletaja. Mõned arvustused üritavad seda fakti peita ja ütlevad tema kohta lihtsalt "kirjutaja".
Üldiselt võib raamatut kirjeldada... "üldisena". See sõna sobib hästi. Autorid võtsid ette päris suure ampsu kirjeldada mitteverbaalset suhtlemist üldiselt ja lõpetuseks koostasid nad tüpoloogia kolmest keelest: märgikeel (sign language), tegevuskeel (action language) ja objektikeel (object language). Peale selle tüpoloogia oli raamatut läbivaks teemaks eristus analoogse ja digitaalse kommunikatsiooni vahel, mis on äärmiselt sarnane TMK mõistetele diskreetsest ja kontinuaalsetest märgisüsteemidest. Sarnasusi nende käsitluste vahel võiks isegi analüüsida (hint hint).
"Üldine" kirjeldab raamatu sisu hästi, set paljud lõigud võiksid tänapäeval taolisest raamatust lihtsalt välja jääda. Raamatu alguses kirjeldatakse erinevate rahvuste käitumismüüte (žestikuleerimiserinevused ameeriklaste, sakslaste, prantslaste, itaallaste ja juutide vahel), siis tutvustatakse suure õhinaga fotograafiat ja nimetatakse hulk erinevaid fotoaparaate. Ja "tänapäeva piktogrammide" näitlikustamiseks on terve lehekülg pühendatud ajast ja arust (õigemini ajaloolisele) mudelile sellisest tehnoloogilisest imesaavutusest nagu seda on automobiil. Viiekümnendad olid selle raamatu järgi kummalised ajad. Hoolimata rohketel fotodel kujutatud ameerika 50ndate idüllilistest nähtustest sisaldab raamat rohkesti väärtuslikke tähelepanekuid, mis kutsuvad seda tulevikus üle lugema. Möödaminnes meeldis ka see, et kohtasin 52. leheküljel sellist lauset: "Movement may be along horizontal or vertical lines, or may occur in frontal or saggital planes vis-á-vis the observer." Mis on minu jaoks erutav, sest alles mõned päevad tagasi õppisin ma kinesioloogia kaudu selgeks sellise väljendi nagu "saggital plane".
Üllataval kombel pakub see raamat tsitaate, mis on kasulikud mitte kauges tulevikus, vaid juba praegu olemasolevas uurimuses - kuidas ideoloogiat väljendatakse ja taastoodetakse mitteverbaalselt. Usutlen, et järgnevatest ümbertrükkidest saan mitmeid ideid järgnevate raamatutega laiendada.

• Cybernetic engineers and biologists have dealt with the communication networks and feedback patterns; psychiatrists, cultural anthropologists, and social workers have studies problems of social action and interpersonal and group relations.
  The trend of a number of these approaches has been toward an essential concern with nonverbal forms of communication and with the verbal form largely in its pragmatic aspects. Such a reaction against the overevaluation of the spoken and printed word, and against both commercialism and the relative exclusion of nonverbal elements, can in one sense be interpreted as a move toward safety. In a time of political and ideological crisis, there exists a tendency to censor words in the naive belief that thought can be brought under absolute control. Although books can be burned, the use of certain words legally outlawed, and even the act of listening to particular broadcasts of speeches marked as a criminal offense, communication through silent action is more difficult to suppress. It has been widely noted how, under authoritarian regimes, human beings turn more and more toward the perception of the nonverbal, the evaluation of nonverbally codified things, and expression through gesture and action. lk 5
• The requirement that a sign be interpersonal in order to qualify as a language, however, is not icompatible with individual variations of interpretation. Variations in understanding are not necessarily due to a failure of the signifying function of a sign but to the fact that ideas remain unexpressed. In daily life human beings are rarely able to do more than to hint at what they desire to express, inasmuch as the very nature of their needs often forces them to exchange messages without delay in time. Thus it is left to the receiver to fill in unexpressed details. But whereas discrepancies in interpretation of detail are permissible as long as signs remain interpersonal, they cease to qualify as language symbols if their significance is known to only one person. lk 8
• Nonverbal communication obviously utilizes analogic codification devices. Thus various kinds of actions, pictures, or material objects represent analogic types of denotation.
  In terms of codification, "digital" contrasts with "analogic"; in language terms, "discursive" contrasts with "nondiscursive." lk 8-9
• Agreement should not be confused, however, with understanding. People shaking hands, for example, are responding to each other and carrying out complementary actions, although internally they may disagree on the significance or sincerity of this action. lk 9
• Within the framework of modern communication theory, communicative actions are conceived of as events that occur in a certain context. The perception and evaluation of signals, both spatial and temporal, cannot be separated from the perception and evaluation of the situation in which they occur. A present-day study of communication, therefore, does not aim at compiling a dictionary of gestures or other motions, but instead emphasizes all possible information about the physical and social settings in which the exchange of messages takes place. In addition to considering symbolic movements and gestures and practical, adaptive actions with communicative value, such a study must take into account all those objects with which human being surround themselves and which affect social interaction. lk 13
• Although the systematized action languages are based on prior verbal agreement and merely substitute for human speech, there are other forms of action that serve as codification and that exist quite independently of words. Darwin (33) postulated that certain emotional states are associated with reflexlike motions - for example, rage with gritting teeth, of fright with recoiling. His theory - that many of the expressive movements observed in men constitute residuals of lower levels in phylogenetic development - may or may not be correct. The important issue is that, for purposes of communication, people make the assumption that feelings are linked with certain expressive movements and that these movements escape voluntary control. In criminal investigations and in court, this notion is exploited in goading suspects to betray their "real" emotions. lk 36
• All expressions of an individual, when perceived by another person, must be interpreted if they are to be understood. Except for the lack of attribution of intention to statements that are regarded as personal or emotional expressions, this process of interpretation in no way differs from that used with consciously formulated messages. Thus, in the process of daily living, emotional expression, ordinary adaptive actions, and gestures are treated in somewhat the same manner. In all three, the identification of the context of a statement comes first (128). Our language has words for these contexts, and such nouns as "breakfast," "wedding," "coctail party," "shopping," and "waiting" designate the occasions. After the discovery of an appropriate label for a particular situation, the attempt is made to fit the observed statement to the situation as well as to what is known about the individuals concerned. In pursuit of this aim, the identification of roles, including one's own, is necessary. Since the eye is a much faster scanning organ than the ear, and because action is frequently silent, a large part of such initial assessment is carried out visually; if such evaluation were not possible, we would be at a considerable loss in interpreting appropriately, as is evident from the limited and often confusing kind of impressions received in conversations over the telephone.
  Photography is capable of recording most of the emotional and action expressions of an individual, although not necessarily in the sense of the nineteenth-century investigators of the human behavior. In their accounts of expressive behavior, such pioneers as Wundt (169) and Darwin (33) used sketches and still photographs to illustrate body posture, gesture, and facial expression, but failed altogether to take into account such considerations as those of social context and the role and position of the human observer. It is well to keep in mind that any kind of observation of behavior - with the exception of behavior observed through one-way screens - occurs in two-person or group situations. The very fact of being observed changes, through feedback, the actions and emotions of the observed individual; actions formely intended for self-consumption then become a statement to others. lk 46
• Each individual, through the gestures he chooses to make and the way in which he makes them, adds an idiosyncratic note that may have particular communicative significance only to close acquaintances. lk 76
• In social intercourse, the person who can derive useful information from apparent contradictions - resulting from a comparison of the various means of codification - has the advantage over others. The person who manages apparent contradictions by disregarding part of the message - those statements that are codified in different terms - loses much information, is likely to misinterpret the message, and is generally less capable of successful communication. lk 86
• In the course of living, new social relations are established and old ones dissolved. Thus, mutually agreed upon approaches and separations occur without imposing undue stress upon the participants. Sometimes, however, agreement cannot be reached. Even though mutual understanding may exist, partisan interests, satisfaction of bodily needs, or matters involving personal security bring about clashes that are frustrating to all concerned. Hence, it is inevitable that people who live together are bound to interfere with one another, but it must be understood that not every interpersonal conflict is the result of psychopathology on the part of the participants. Only when a conflict is perpetuated for its own sake, and when mutual interference has become a goal in itself, do social conflicts become abnormal. Perpetual or repeated conflicts between the same individuals are sometimes even provoked to ease unbearable internal tension. But, more often than not, social conflict increases anxiety.
  An entire series of visual or auditory cues betrays the presence of social conflict to an observer. Among the most common of these cues are those indicating such disturbances of emotions as anger, fear, anxiety, shame, guilt, and depression; all these are the result of either internal psychological conflicts or interference by other people. Regardless of the cause, the manifestations of the alarm in themselves can be communicated to other people, and may become the source of social conflict. Indeed, no normal individual is eager for the company of depressed or anxious persons if he can possibly avoid it. Thus the nonverbal signs of alarm are the foremost cues telling others to be on the guard, to apply a different yardstick to the interpretation of messages, or to undertake the necessary steps to change the situation.
  The presence of conflict is, however, not detected exclusively by means of cues indicating people's alarm. Stress is often diagnosed, not by the presence, but by the absence of certain cues that, if they were present, would tend to reassure people. For example, we all expect certain such emotional reactions as signs of grief on the occasion of the loss of a loved one, signs of anger after an insult, an expression of pain following an injury. If these expected reactions are not forthcoming, we are more alarmed than we would be if they were present. An angry man who is trying to pick a fight is likely to become more infuriated if his opponent remains cool and dispassionate. Similarly, icy silence in a group situation is more indicative of stress than a smooth flow of conversation. The absence of a handshake where it might normally be expected is more suggestive of hostility than even a painful poke in the ribs. The awareness of the absence of cues presupposes a familiarity with a particular situation and other similar situations. A friend can detect whether or not a couple has just been quarreling; a mother can tell whether a tussle between children is friendly or hostile; an employee is able to sense whether an employer's seeming praise is actually to be taken as an insult.
  The detection of conflict and stress is thus based upon the observation of a multitude of cues. The perception of actual signs of alarm, their comparison to expected signs of alarm, the impact of the alarm upon bystanders, and the feedback of this reaction to those who were alarmed in the first place - all are functions that can be perceived by an observer and that may contribute to his evaluation of the situation. The longer he observes the events, the more accurate his assessment is likely to be. But it is not always possible for people to wait until they have fully grasped what is happening. On many occasions a quick assessment and an on-the spot decision is necessary; therefore the question presents itself as to whether visual cues exist that can inform an onlooker quickly about the presence of stress or social conflict or the existence of emergencies. In answer to this question, we might point to the fact that in the animal world all creatures seem to recognize sounds and movements that indicate the presence of danger. These are obviously related to the perception of cues that are unusual and that differ from the cues indicating safety or "business as usual", as well as to the perception of stimuli that are extremely intense and those that are known to signify danger. The same applies to human beings. The cues that warn of known danger imply the knowledge of the mechanical tasks of daily life, of weapons, and of other dangers, and the ability to distinguish friends and enemies. Those situations that contain strange and unusual stimuli - particularly those that exceed the tolerance limit of the organism - are of relevance here. lk 163-164
• The symptoms under observation in psychopathology reveal themselves as disturbances of perception, evaluation, or expression. Since signals must be decoded in some way, it is obvious that such disturbances must involve an individual's internal codification, which are generally referred to as thinking and feeling, as well as his external codifications, the language used to communicate with others.
  In the course of the development of language, the earliest forms of codification involve the human body as a means of denotation, a phenomenon that makes it possible for parents to understand in part what is happening within the child. For example, the child shows, through an erhytema on his skin, where he itches. That such a statement is perhaps uninentional is not important, since it is language in the sense that it is understandable to both mother and child. At a later period of development, when the child is learning to move, such body language is supplemented by action language. In the initial stages of its development, the child makes use of both organ and action language. In organ language, the smooth muscles obviously predominate; in action language, the striped muscles. As the child develops further, the external concomitants of earlier internal codifications recede. Inner events are less and less expressed through bodily manifestations of the intestinal, respiratory, and vascular systems, or through the skin and the smooth muscles, but more and more through physical and social action. Finally, when symbolic mastery has been achieved, verbal, gestural, and other more arbitrary forms of denotation replaced some of the previous employed actions. lk 165
• Nonverbal language is frequently used to effect social control. In interpersonal situations, many ideas, concepts, and things must be stated in ways that will not be considered obtrusive or offensive. Among such considerations is the definition of boundaries. Marks of ownership, expressed by means of objects, may be found near entrances, at gateways and doors, identifying owners or residents of a certain property and indicating how they may be reached. Such marks are particularly suitable for denoting statements to whom it may concern. Objects stand permanently in one place and can be seen at any time impose prohibitions through their impact. Some objects are addressed to particular people; appealing interpersonally, they may invite, seduce, or repel, or demand to be looket at, touched, or tried out. We all consciously look for nonverbal clues in buildings, landscapes, and interiors, for we know that these clues have something to say about the status, prestige, taste, and other values of those who own them. Such an awareness is used by architects, decorators, and owners to set the scene for social encounters. lk 191
• The relationship between verbal and nonverbal codifications can be conceptualized best through the notion of metacommunication. Any message may be regarded as having two aspects: the statement proper, and the explanations pertaining to its interpretation. The nature of interpersonal communication necessitates that these coincide in time, and this can be achieved only through the use of another channel. The effect is similar to an arrangement of a musical composition for two instruments, where the voices in one sense move independently and in another change and supplement each other but nonetheless are integrated into an organic and functional unity.
  Combinations of the verbal and the nonverbal may be employed not only to enlighten but also to obscure the issues involved. In politics, business, advertising - indeed in every walk of life - words may be used to conceal forthcoming actions, and contradictiory expressions are consciously used to create confusion, since human communication almost always involves object, action, and word. If all the symbolic expressions of an individual refer to the same event, then the referential aspects of the statements are clear. But when action codifications contradict verbal codifications, then confusion is almost certain to result. For example, when a mother repeatedly claims, "Darling, you're sweet," simultaneously pinching her child to the extent of producing black and blue marks, the child has to learn to disregard either the action or the verbal statement in order to avoid confusion. lk 192-193
• When verbal and digital symbols are not repeatedly checked against the things they purport to stand for, distortions of signification may develop that nonverbal languages seldom bring about. Since in everyday communication these shortcomings of verbal language are difficult to avoid, people often intuitively resort to the use of nonverbal, analogic language, which is more closely tied to actual events. But this is not enough. If human beings are to protect themselves against the onslaught of modern communications machinery and the distortions of propaganda, they must ultimately learn once again the use words scrupulously and with a sense of integrity. Only by a renewal of emphasis on the individual, with all his personal and unique characteristics - and this involves to a great extent the nonverbal - can a sense of proportion and dignity be restored to human relations. lk 193